Ptolemy identifies the following tribes as inhabiting the northern territory which equates to modern Scotland: (roughly from north to south) Cornavii, Caereni, Smertae, Lugi, Carnonacae, Decantae, Creones, Caledonii, Vacomagi, Taexali, Venicones, Epidii, Damnonii, Votadini, Selgovae, Novantae. Tacitus refers to the Boresti, who probably inhabited the coastal region of Moray. A further tribe has recently come to light on a tablet from Vindolanda, the Anavionenses, who probably lived along the banks of the river Annan.

Of these, the Caledonii of the central Highlands emerged as the leader of the tribes who opposed Agricola. The Votadini of south-east Scotland may have become a client kingdom of Rome; the tribe certainly flourished at least until the end of the fourth century AD.