For many long years, England and Scotland had no real fixed border. Even the idea of an actual border was a later medieval invention.1 Ever since the Adventus Saxonum, fierce wars had been fought for lordship over lands that today cover the borders between modern day Scotland and England. Scottish and English sources will tell the reader or historian different versions of the same event, making the actual truth all the more difficult to discern. Further chaos ensued in 793 C.E. when the Vikings began to sweep down upon all of Britain, beginning three hundred years of hostility and warfare. With the coming of the Northmen, both Scottish and Anglo-Saxon rulers had to look to their own affairs. Yet these invasions also gave the Scottish and Anglo-Saxon Kings room to maneuver against each other as the Viking invasions waxed and waned. Although the Vikings did inflict serious military defeats on the Scots and the Anglo-Saxons, they were not numerically superior enough to colonize the lands that they conquered.2 The turbulent years of the early tenth century C.E. saw the Anglo-Saxon King of Wessex, Edward the Elder, and his extremely formidable sister Athelflaed, combine the lands and Houses of Mercia and Wessex together.3 The years between the passing of Constantine I of Scotland and the death of his son Donald II in 900 also gave the Scots time to reassess their position in relation to their neighboring peoples.4 Both the Scots and the Anglo-Saxons were lured into competition for possession and lordship of the land of Bernicia and the surrounding areas. This competition would lead to English claims of lordship over all of Scotland, Danish York, and Welsh Strathclyde, effectively making Edward the Elder and the following English King, Athelstan, “bretwaldas” of all Britain.
Bernicia became the center of a struggle that pit the King of the Scots and English in a fight for lordship of the area. Bernicia was an area that was hotly contested between Anglo-Saxon, Scot, and Briton. The name Bernicia is of British origin, meaning “ of the passes”.5 However, the greater majority of its inhabitants were Angles, thus speaking a Germanic dialect, much akin to that spoken in Mercian lands.6 Independent British Kingdoms such as Elmet isolated the Nodanhymborum gens from the Anglo, Saxon, and Jutish peoples whom early charters refer to as the Sutangli, or Southern English.7 It was this separation from their distant kinsman that would makes the reeves of Bamburh flee to the court of the Scottish King, Constantine II.
The Scots did have a history of raiding into Bernicia. Cinraed I of Scotland apparently raided into English territory six times, where it is claimed that he burnt Dunbar and laid siege to Melrose. Giric is reputed to have “subjugated all of Bernicia”, although Lothian was probably the extent of his invasion.8 Even if the Scots raided into lands held by the Angles, that certainly did not constitute lordship of these lands. Scottish rulers during this time were acting in accordance with their ancestral traditions, which included booty-raids into enemy territory. Interference in the affairs and lands actually held by the King of the Anglo-Saxons was not to happen until the tenth century C.E.9 Scottish leaders now were engaging in relations with a land that was supposedly ruled by their own people, even if Anglian.
It was further Viking invasions that permitted the Scots time to consolidate themselves and their military power. Kenneth mac Alpin benefited when Viking forces crushed his British and Pictish neighbors, thus paving the way for Scottish dominance in the north.10 However, the most immediate cause for eventual Scottish intervention in Bernicia was the arrival of a fierce Viking leader name Rögnvaldr. From 914-918 Rögnvaldr and his followers waged war across the span of both Britain and Ireland.11 In 914 the Viking chief led his forces from Ireland to Britain, landing at the Firth of Clyde. With the intention of reaching Yorkshire, Rögnvaldr moved overland through Lothian and soon arrived in Yorkshire.12
Upon arriving in Yorkshire, Rögnvaldr forcibly expelled the leading nobles of Bernicia from their lands and distributed them amongst his followers. Eadulf, reeve of Bamburh, passed away in 913-914, leaving his son Ealdred in office.13 Ealdred is an important figure in the foreign policy of the Scots, the Danes in York, and the Anglo-Saxons to the south. It was Ealdred of Bamburh who fled to the court of Constantine II.14 This is the true moment when the dispute arises over who is the rightful lord of Bamburh and all of Bernicia. In the early tenth century, Danish Vikings ruled Deira as far north as the Wear. Bernicia was nominally ruled by English lordship conducted through the Anglian reeve of Bamburh.15 Yet due to geographic and political isolation from their southern counterparts in Mercia and Wessex, Bernicia enjoyed a sort of independence, free from direct English rule. This would seem to state though that the English did in fact have lordship, if at least in name, over Bernicia. So why did Ealdred run to the Scottish King? The Danes who now held York and much of Northumbria were not numerous enough to completely consolidate Bernicia, so it was essentially free from direct Danish political and military control.16 But now that Rögnvaldr had consolidated his power in York, Bernician independence was challenged. Now is the time when this issue would be decided. Apparently in the minds of the people of Bernicia, or of their leader Ealdred of Bamburh, their allegiance, or at least temporary allegiance, would be given to Scotland.
Constantine II accepted Ealdred’s plea for help, and backed it up with military action against the Danish Vikings of York at two major battles.17 In the first battle of Corbridge the Scots and their Bernician allies were defeated by Rögnvaldr’s army of Vikings. After this defeat Rögnvaldr settled many of his followers throughout Bernician lands.18 Most likely in the year 918 another great battle was fought at Corbridge. Contemporary Irish Annals show that the Scots had some initial success in the battle, but were eventually defeated once again. Supposedly fought on the Haddington Tyne, the second Battle of Corbridge evoked much attention throughout the British Isles. Both the Irish Annals and the Scottish Chronicle recorded the battle in detail.19 What is known is that the Danes left the Scots alone for a sizeable amount of time after the battle.20 Rögnvaldr’s forces must have been seriously weakened as he retired south and took possession of York sometime soon after 918. In reality, the Second Battle of Corbridge must have been very damaging to all parties involved. Constantine went back north, Rögnvaldr moved south to the weaker areas of Northumbria, and the Bernicians ceased to play a major role of any sort in the local politics ever again.21
Why would Constantine II take such a chance by defending a territory that he had little to no claim to? There are varying claims from different historians as to this vital point in Anglo-Scottish relations. Ealdred of Bamburh was supposedly an English reeve, yet it was to the Scottish King that he fled for protection. Were Ealdred and Constantine relatives? There are claims that Ealdred may have been the son of a princess of the house of Cináed mac Alpin of Scotland. There is also the theory that Ealdred may have been married into the House of Bamburh.22 However, there is another last piece of information that may point to another factor. The Fragmentary Annals records that Athelflaed, Edward the Elder’s sister, was the main driving force behind an alliance that supposedly banded together the Mercians, the Welsh of Strathclyde, and the Scottish Cenél nGabráin. The alliance stipulated that if one of the three peoples were attacked by Vikings, then the other two would come to their aid.23 English records such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle are very quiet on this matter, further complicating the subject. There is some reason to believe that Constantine may have been acting as the overlord of the area, as he fought for it very far south of his own lands on two major occasions, but it is more likely that there was a more immediate reason. Constantine wished to buffer himself against the Danish Vikings of York and the fast growing power of the West Saxon dynasty.24
Through a process of conquest and military innovation, the House of Wessex was able to extend its borders all the way to the Humber. The tenth century would see the West Saxon dynasty come to dominate English politics. Much of this was dine by Edward the Elder, who became King of the West Saxons upon the death of his father, Alfred the Great.25 Edward and his sister Athelflaed’s political and military prominence would lead to the eventual re-conquest of the Danelaw, a great feat for English expansion. When King Edward the Elder passed away in 924 C.E.26, all Danish colonies situated south of the ancient boundary of the Humber had been conquered by the West Saxons.27 Edward and his sister did not have an easy path to dominance over Britain. In 900 or 901, the son of King Athelred I, the aetheling Athelwold, revolted against King Edward.28 He captured and fortified residences at Wimborne and Twinham, only to eventually escape from Wimborne when King Edward camped his army nearby. Upon his escape, Athelwold fled to seek protection from the Danish army in York, which they gave him.29 Athelwold was eventually killed along with many Danes in a battle with the “men of Kent”, who apparently disobeyed King Edward’s orders in fighting the Danes.30
Another of King Edward’s family, his sister Athelflaed, was his greatest ally, and one of the most accomplished military figures of all Anglo-Saxon England. Husband of Athelred, ealdorman of the Mercians, Athelflaed has a strong will, a sharp mind, and the loyalty of the Mercian people after her husband’s death in 911.31 The Battle of Tettenhall, fought in 910, allowed the West Saxon dynasty the freedom from Danish attacks from Northumbria, a factor that greatly allowed for West Saxon expansionism and eventual claims of lordship over Scotland and the surrounding areas.32 Both Edward and Athelflaed expanded Mercian and Wessex lands by continuing the construction of a series of fortified burhs, furthering the work that their father Alfred the Great had begun.33 Interestingly enough, the Mercian Register, a collection of annals written in Mercia and connected to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, states the people of York had given promises and oaths stating that their would submit to Athelflaed’s direction.34 However, this alliance was not to be as Athelflaed, “domina Merce”, died in 918.35 Edward broke off from his campaign towards Nottingham and Lincoln to ensure his power in Mercia. Now that Edward ruled in Mercia, there was no formal distinction between Mercia and Wessex, at least politically.36 Soon thereafter Edward subdued both Lincoln and Nottingham, and fortified them both with garrisons on Englishmen and Danes. Now for the first time in Anglo-Saxon history, all of the English south of the river Humber were united.37
Edward considered Northumbria to be part of the ancient Saxon kingdoms, worthy to be reclaimed by the southern English. He also feared the growing power of the Dublin-York power basis of the Vikings, and most likely wished to take York. Rögnvaldr stormed York was became King there in 919, an event that must have worried both Constantine II and Edward the Elder.39 Edward knew that he must strike at the Danes, and also knew that he had little to fear south of the Humber. By having subdued the Britons of Cornwall, East Anglia, and Mercia, along with Athelflaed’s submission of great parts of Wales, King Edward the Elder had enough power to be styled “bretwalda”40 The authority of the West Saxon King now made him the strongest man militarily on the whole island of Britain. Was the somewhat vague title of bretwalda implying a weak sort of military dominance over the island? In the past, bretwalda had been reserved for a war leader who was generally acknowledged as the strongest military leader on the island. This did not mean that the other leaders owed him their allegiance, and it did not imply that the bretwalda was overlord of their respective territories. It generally meant that he was the strongest military man of his day. This term is quite appropriate for Edward the Elder. Claims of complete English dominance could be accurately made south of the Humber, but north of the Humber both Scots and Danes moved quickly against the northern English encroachments of the new bretwalda.
This somewhat dubious distinction was severely tested when King Edward moved northwards in 920. He moved north to Nottingham, and completed new fortifications over the river Trent. Now with a fortified position from which he could move out against Northumbria, Edward continued on into the Peak district to Bakewell.41 A fort and garrison was built there at a juncture of two valleys in order to allow access to the north and northwest.42 The King of the Scots, Rögnvaldr of York, and the Welsh of Strathclyde all must have had contact with each other, and known that Edward’s military capacity had grown great indeed. Now with defensible English positions so close to their own borders, the northern powers had to have been somewhat intimidated. Edward the Elder could not have foreseen what would happen next.
Perhaps what may be on of the most famous entries in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that “the King of the Scots and all the people of the Scots, and Ragnald(Rögnvaldr), and the sons of Eadulf and all who live in Northumbria, both English and Danish, Norsemen and others, and also the King of the Strathclyde Welsh and all the Strathclyde Welsh, chose him as father and lord.”43 This may have been one of the most momentous statements made in Anglo-Saxon history. Did the King of all English south of the Humber, have the right to make this assertion of being overlord of all of the aforementioned territory? It must be remembered that this statement was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a collection of manuscripts penned by a pro-Wessex author. The author of the chronicle would have wanted the treaty made between the rulers to be a Scottish, Danish, and Welsh submission to Anglo-Saxon military dominance.44 Edward the Elder could not actually claim dominance over these lands, for he surely did not have the adequate military power to do so, otherwise he likely would have. These English claims of lordship had other motivations behind them, ably discussed by both English and Scottish authorities.45 English lordship of Bernicia cannot have been taken seriously by the Danes and Scots, although it was claimed. John of Worcester, a pro-English author, writes that the northern powers “regem Eadwardum Seniorem sibi in patrem et dominum elegerunt firmumque cum eo foedus pepigerunt.”46 This statement implies that a “firm treaty” was made with Edward.
Even if it was a firm treaty, and the Scots, Danes, and Welsh all somewhat feared-respected the growing military power of the West Saxons, they all had their own reasons for making the treaty. Ealdred of Bamburh probably acknowledge Edward as his protector, as there were already English connections to the area. The Welsh of Strathclyde were most likely reconfirmed in their lands which they had wrested away from Northumbria long ago. Constantine II received security from the Viking power basis of York-Dublin through “submitting” to Edward. Rögnvaldr’s contribution is somewhat similar to the other people. He was the closet to the growing borders of English lands, and probably the first to fall in the desires of King Edward. Yet he was given recognition of his lands in York.47 Even though he was now essentially the hegemon of Britain, and somewhat in a position to make demands, they cannot have been many. In return for recognition of their lands, these leaders became Edward’s men, which entailed recognition and defense of his lands if attacked. Even though this is a fairly simplistic bond or connection, it certainly foreshadowed later feudal relations between Scotland and England. Edward now had connections between himself and every ruler in Britain, a position that greatly dignified the prestige of the West Saxons throughout the island.48
Not surprisingly, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is silent on the details of this matter. It is simply stated that Edward became the lord and father of these people, a position that his heirs would not willingly give up. Certain historians who have championed the case of English supremacy over Scotland49 have tried to downplay the concessions made by the English King, as the Scottish historians50 who cover the event try to discredit the Saxon chronicler who recorded the event. Overall, the truth in Edward’s claims to be lord and protector of all of these people is most likely false. It was a dependant relationship between all parties involved, more of a general acknowledgement of each other’s lands and powers than an English King making early claims of actual lordship. At this point in the history of the British Isles, lordship demanded military consolidation and occupation, two factors that Edward did not entirely possess.
One last Anglo-Saxon figure must be examined in this study of early English foreign policy and lordship. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states for the year 924 that “In this year King Edward dies at Farndon in Mercia…and Aethelstan was chosen by the Mercians as King, and consecrated at Kingston.”51 Edward the Elder had passed away, and his son Athelstan was to open a new episode in English claims of lordship over Scotland. There were signs that Edward’s power was slowly crumbling away in Mercia, but Athelstan’s ascension to the throne of Wessex changed that. Mercia seemed to harbor a respect or love of Athelstan. William of Malmesbury in his Gesta Regum Anglorum states that Athelstan was raised in the household of Athelflaed and Athelred of Mercia, two highly respected and loved figures by the Mercian people.52 He was the first King of the West Saxons to be accepted unconditionally by the Mercians, as his crowning in the two different lands were independent from each other. This command bolstered his influence in Northumbrian politics, a position that his father never completely enjoyed.53
With the death of Rögnvaldr in 920-921, his cousin Sihtric became King of the Northumbrians after a peaceful succession.54 King Sihtric must have seen the growing power of Athelstan and the West Saxons, so he quickly arranged for a meeting between Athelstan and himself. On January 30, 926 Athelstan and Sihtric met at Tamworth for a conference. What is known is that concessions were made, with Athelstan bestowing the hand of his full sister in marriage to Sihtric of York. In return Sihtric probably agreed to recognize Athelstan’s lands and covert to Christianity.55 Yet by the summer of 927, King Sihtric of Northumbria had died, leaving a young son Olaf to lead their people. The Northumbrian Danes acknowledged Olaf as their King, and soon thereafter his uncle Guthfrith, King of the Norwegians from Dublin, sailed to Northumbria to support him. Athelstan observed all of this with a watchful eye, and led an invasion into Northumbria.56 After a short campaign Olaf was driven to Dublin and Guthfrith found refuge with the King of the Scots.
As stated, King Edward could claim to be overlord over all Britain south of the Humber, yet his power in the north was the misty figure of the ancient bretwalda at best. His son Athelstan was more ambitious, and through his close connections with Mercia, was more in a position to claim personal rule over areas north of the Humber as well. Here is seen another episode in which an Anglo-Saxon King declared lordship of the peoples north of the Humber. On July 12, 927, Athelred met with the King of Scots, the King of the Strathclyde Welsh, and the reeve of Bamburh at Eamont near Penrith.57 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates that the northern leaders there “renounced all idolatry and afterwards departed in peace.”58 Sooner afterwards Athelstan reduced the fortifications around York and took it for his own. Never before had a southern Saxon King had lordship of York or of Northumbria as a whole.
Athelstan furthered his supremacy as he further reduced the status of certain Welsh princes and the Britons of Cornwall from 927-937.59 Claims of English military dominance over many of the peoples in Britain could now be accurately made. However, the treaty struck at Eamont was starting to unravel quickly. The Guthfrith who had been driven to Dublin died in 934, and was succeeded by his son Olaf. Olaf further consolidated the Norwegian colonies around Dublin, putting him in a position to attack Northumbria. Fearful that the Scots would join the Norwegians, or acting in response to a related hostile action by the Scots, Athelstan invaded Scotland as far as Dunnotar in 934.60 Athelstan still could not conquer Scotland militarily, but he performed a serious and deadly raid. Constantine II was forced to meet with Athelstan, and Florence of Worcester states that Constantine had to hand over one of his sons to the West Saxon King as a pledge of good conduct.61

Constantine II and Owain, King of the Strathclyde Welsh, had been making overtures to Olaf’s Norwegian colony at Dublin for aid, moves that Athelstan noticed. Constantine, Owain, and Olaf all had reasons to fight the King of the West-Saxons. By now it was apparent that the English King wanted domination of all lands north of the Humber, and it may have only been a matter of time in the minds of the northern Kings before Athelstan attempted this move.62

Upon the complete subjection of his Irish holdings, Olaf Guthfrithson invaded Britain. Upon reaching Britain, Olaf joined his army with that of Owain’s and Constantine’s, and they made their way south into English-held Northumbria.63 William of Malmesbury records that the northern army made its way deep into English territory, only to be cut off from a possible northern escape route.64 The army moving southwards was one of the greatest seen in Britain in hundreds of years, composed of many different peoples. Yet a contemporary Old-English poem tells us that King Athelstan and his brother Edmund met the northerners at unidentified place. Athelstan and Edmund had raised a huge army from Mercia and Wessex, and gave battle to the Kings of Dublin, Scotland, and Strathclyde. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle glorifies the battle, stating that “Edward’s sons clove the shield-wall, hewing the linden-wood shields with hammered swords…their enemies perished; the people of the Scots and pirates fell doomed.”65 Although William of Malmesbury states that the English losses were heavy, the northerners were driven off the field, and great numbers of them were slain as they retreated.66

The Battle of Brunanburh was a moment that has been immortalized in English history. Although most of the sources for the battle are of English opinion, it was undoubtedly a resounding English victory. The vanquishing of a huge northern army did much for English unity and dominance. Warriors from Wessex and Mercia joined together and won a major battle together, thus somewhat alleviating the ancient hatred between the two peoples that resulted from their ancestral wars.67 From a Scottish viewpoint, it was a disaster for Constantine II had been playing the field against Athelstan for many years. The Scots knew that they must check the growing power of the House of Wessex, and it all came to a head at Brunanburh. Although Athelstan did not conquer Scotland proper after this engagement, he did begin to style himself “rex totius Britanniae”,68 He was indeed closer than any of his predecessors to be considered overlord of Britain. He also began to call himself “basileus”, trying to recall the glory of the imperial leaders of Constantinople. Charters of the day show that the Welsh princes who attended signed the charters as sub-reguli, and in 934 Constantine was noted to have signed Ego Constantinus subregulus.69 The monastic writers who wrote many of these histories were well endowed by Athelstan, so it is not surprising that they spoke of him in so high of a manner. Yet there has to be a morsel of truth in the somewhat inferior relationship that these rulers had with Athelstan.

So were the Anglo-Saxon claims to lordship over the Northern Britons and Scots historically substantiated? The answer is no, although not by far. Lordship of the land of Bernicia was the first in a series of conflicts that would lure the Kings of the West Saxons into competition against the Kings of the Scots. When Ealdred of Bamburh pleaded to Constantine II of Scotland for help, it was given on more than one occasion. Yet the main impetus behind these actions was the desire of the Scottish King to place a safe buffer between his own lands and that of the rapidly expanding West Saxons. At the same time, the English south of the Humber were uniting through a process of conquest. The deeds and actions of Edward the Elder and his sister Athelflaed in consolidating English lands south of the Humber was truly determined and methodical, and resulted in Edward as the sole overlord south of the Humber, and bretwalda, not King, of all Britain. Although his position was furthered by the momentous claim of receiving the submission of the Kings of Scotland, Welsh Strathclyde, and Northumbria, Edward the Elder was still not in a strong enough position militarily to claim actual lordship of the submitted areas. Edward’s son Athelstan is considered by some authorities to be one of England’s greatest monarchs ever. Strengthened by Mercian ties that his father did not have, Athelstan greatly controlled events on the island for much of his reign. His resounding defeat of a Welsh, Scottish, and Norwegian/Irish confederation at Brunanburh in 937 showed that he had the military power to defeat anyone on the island. As strong as Athelstan was, he still could not claim lordship of Scotland and the British north. He may have crushed a combined army of the major military powers on the island, but they invaded into his country and fought a battle on his land. He was not powerful enough to take the sword to the outlying lands that fought against him, an act that is necessary to be styled rex totius Britanniae. In the tenth century the monarch of the West Saxon dynasty could be called King of all Britain in name, and somewhat deservedly, but in reality he did not have the military strength which was absolutely necessary for the right to claim this title.