(modern Cerveteri)

Foundations
Caere, the Etruscan Cisra or Chaisr(i)e. One of the principal cities of Etruria, situated near its southern extremity (now in Lazio). The presence of noticeable traces of protovillanovan settlements, particularly at Sasso di Fubara and Monte Abatone, testifies to the fact that this area was already densely populated in the prehistoric era.

9th Century BC
It is believed that the city was in the process of developing during the early Iron Age (9th century BC); this is borne out by the necropolis of Sorbo and of Cava della Pozzolana, which have given us numerous Villanovan burial sites whose form is less developed than that of those found in places in southern Etruria, such as Tarquinii, Veii and Vulci. From about the ninth century BC the site was occupied by a group of villages, or perhaps by a single village, with others scattered nearby; it extended along the outermost spurs of the metal-rich Tolfa mountains, overlooking the coastal plain of the Tyrrhenian Sea, which was three-and-a-half miles away. The valleys of two streams bordered the habitation site on either side, meeting to form the little river Vaccina. At least part of the Tolfa range had come under control of Caere (passing out of the hands of Tarquinii) by the early seventh century BC; and by this time its villages had already been amalgamated into a single city.

8th Century BC
The greatest period of prosperity for the city, which is perhaps tied up with the intense exploitation of the mineral resources of the Tolfa Mountains and with the expansion of maritime trade, could already be clearly seen at the end of the 8th century BC.Caere became the centre in which it is possible to recognize a whole series of crafts of great importance such as the outstanding production of Bucchero (typical Etruscan black pottery), of bronze and of italo-geometric ceramics.

7th Century BC
At least part of the Tolfa range had come under control of Caere (passing out of the hands of Tarquinii) by the early seventh century BC; and by this time its villages had already been amalgamated into a single city. Before long, it extended its power and ownership further to the northwest and north, incorporating a number of considerable inland settlements. Moreover, it succeeded Tarquinii as the principal Etruscan naval and sea-trading power, possessing no less than five identifiable ports at Pyrgi (Santa Severa), Castellina, Punicum (Santa Marinella), Alsium (Palo) and Fregenae (Fregene). Being the southernmost of the Etruscan maritime cities, Caere was the nearest to the Greek markets and colonies of Campania, notably Cumae (Cuma), from whose alphabet the Etruscan script was adapted.
The greatly increased wealth brought in by the export of metals during the early days of the exitence for the city is demonstrated by the lavish burial furniture of its graves, notably the gold jewelry (now in the Vatican) from the Regolini-Galassi tomb in the necropolis of Sorbo, is a noteworthy example: an unusual combination made by the adding to and joining of various surrounding burial places made it possible to discover intact, in 1863, the oldest burial place composed of an entrance way, outer room and a cell. In the central cell there was a buried corpse adorned with princely grave-goods of gold, silver, ivory, bronze and ceramics which can now be dated no later than 675 BC. The Baditaccia cemetery too, consisting of earth grave-mounts heaped upon plinths of rock or stone, provides a unique memorial of Etruscan civilization in the late seventh and sixth centuries. In the funeral rite, the Villanovan cremation was soon replaced by inhumation and the first chamber-tombs appear. These tombs imitate and therefore document the development of the architecture of civil dwellings, which were in turn an expression of the rising Etruscan aristocracy, and it is from them, in the best cases, that outstanding grave-goods have been brought to light.

6th Century BC
Concern prompted by the establishment of a Greek (Phocaean) colony at Alalia (Aleria) in Corsica, dominating the sea approaches to Etruria, inspired Caere to oppose the new foundation, in alliance with its trading partners and rivals the Carthaginians. From c 550-540 the Caeritans became well-known for their working of hammered sheet-bronze; and they inaugurated an impressive school of widely exported ceramics. This was developed through the initiative of Ionian refugees from Persian agression, who became an important and welcome element in the life of the city (the workshop of the "Idrie Ceretane"), frequently a temple dedicated to the Greek goddess Hera.
Following upon the Battle of Alalia (c 535), the Caeritans massacred the surviving members of the Greek crews; and subsequently they themselves, it appears from Diodorus, established a settlment of their own in Corsica- at Alalia or nearby. Following the so called "Battle of the Sardinian Sea", hundreds of Phocaean prisoners were stoned to death in Caere, which according to ancient sources resulted in a plague on the city, and was only lifted after consultation with the oracle at Delphi. Caere was the only Etruscan city to have a "thesauros" in the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. By way of expiation, the citizens of Caere were required to schedule athletic contests every year to honour the dead Phocaeans. The Greek prisoners were buried en masse probably at a site located midway between Caere and Pyrgi, which has been recently located. In 525/24 Aristodemus of Cumae repelled an Etruscan expedition in Campania.

Caere had now produced significant sulptors and in 520, some of the greatest masterpieces of the age were created to adorn the lids of the sarcophagi of its dead: notably life-size figures of a husband and wife reclining on a banqueting couch, now to be seen at Rome (Villa Giulia Museum) and Paris (the Louvre). Alongside the tumuli there appear, from the middle of the 6th century BC, also cube-shaped or "dado" tombs which were socially connected with the upcoming middle classes and which have facades which imitate the appearance of city dwellings, with a room beneath.

5th Century BC
Bilingual inscriptions, in Greek and Punic, of their king Thefarie Velianas (c 500), incised on sheets of gold leaf found at Pyrgi, indicate that the connection with the Carthaginians still, for a time, remained strong. But hostile relations with their Etruscan neighbor Veii threw the rulers of Caere into the arms of Rome, which under its etruscan monarchy and early Republic used their harbors and fleets for its overseas trade (true, the arch enemy of Rome in the Aeneid by Virgil, Mezentius, was a Caeritan- but he was a Caeritan whose own city had rejected him). Helped by its friendship with Rome, Caere enjoyed, as excavations show, a very powerful cultural and commercial influence- perhaps extending in some cases to political control- as far afield as various regions in Latium and Campania. However, its interest in the latter region were severely threatened by Syracuse, whose forces extensively plundered the Caeritan coastlands c 453.

4th Century BC
The keynote of the foreign policy for Caere remained its alliance with the Romans. Thus, toward the end of the fourth century, when its neighbors and compatriots, the people of Veii, were locked in a deadly struggle with Rome, it failed to support them, and they succumbed. Moreover, when c 387 the Gauls under Brennus temporarily occupied Rome, Caere gave asylum to the sacred objects evacuated from the city (the priests and Vestal Virgins had managed to carry off much sacred regalia to Caere), and helped hasten the departure of Brennus. In response, Rome granted it special privileges, and the two states sent joint colonies to Sardinia and Corsica c 378/77, 357/54). Yet c 353 the Caeritans at last became impatient of the increasing domination by Rome and protested or rebelled. However, their gesture was brought to order, and they were deprived of their coastland territory (in favor of Roman colonists) by the terms of a hundred-year treaty or truce. Their independent days were now over, but Roman nobles were still sent to Caere to study the Etruscan language and literature- and perhaps to learn Greek as well.
After 400 Caere became a prolific producer of red-figure pottery.

3rd Century BC
In 253 BC Caere, supporting Tarquinii (modern Tarquinia) against Rome, was defeated and lost part of its territory, including the coastal area. From the third to the first century only poor graves are evident, mostly reusing earlier tombs.

1st Century BC
Strabo reports in the early imperial times that the city of Caere was little more than a village compared to being once a mighty city. Nevertheless, buildings of the Roman epoch, including a theater and an Augusteum, have been identified.

1st Century AD
Deprived of its ports, Caere was thus doomed to a crisis which came to an end with its total extinction in the 1st century AD. Recently, two fragmented slabs were found known as the Elogia Tarquiniensis. These pay tribute to Velthur Spurinnas and Aulus Spurinnas, and give a rare glimpse of Etruscan history, including the mention of one King Orgolnium of Caere, recalling the family name of Urgulanilla,which included among its members, the wife of the emperor Claudius.