STOLATA
A BRIEF DISCUSSION OF ROMAN WOMEN'S GARB
Rome, Julilla Sempronia

But you, by nature form'd in finer moulds,

Must wrap your tender limbs in silken folds;

Wear lawns and tissue, sleep in damask beds,

And with gay knots and wires adorn your heads:

Your ears with pendants, lockets on your arms,

Besides a thousand other nameless charms.

–Ovid, the Art of Beauty

In early Roman times women wore togas, but soon this mode of dress gave way to the stola, robe of the traditional Roman matron, and to see a woman togata meant that she was a prostitute or in disgrace.

Women in the late Republic and early empire wore a tunica as an undergarment, over which was worn the stola, a long, full-length dress gathered above the waist by a girdle, or zona. If the stola was not long for it to be tucked at the waist to hide the girdle, the girdle itself supplied a further opportunity for the luxurious display: instead of the ordinary plain ribbon, an expensive or a piece of valuable braid studded with precious stones or pearls might be used.

The stola was always long, covering the woman's instep. A distinguishing border or decoration often referred to in literature was the institia, however, records of this trimming are lacking, since it is not imitated on sculpture and has apparently not been recognized in the surviving paintings. It is most likely to have been a narrow border around the bottom of the stola. Over this the Roman matrona donned the palla, a wide, trailing scarf that covered her from head to foot.

Materials

Woolen and linen were the staple fabrics in Republican and even in Imperial Rome, women could still be found who wove all their family's clothing from the wool of sheep fromt their own estates. In fact, Augustus' wife, Livia wove all the materials used to clothe her household.

In later periods, silk was worn with increasing frequency — real silk, brought from China. It was very expensive (traded ounce for ounce with gold) and proportionately prized: writers often sniped about the cost of women's garb, phrases that echo down the long years to this very day.

Undergarments

An undergarment called the tunica interior or intima, or, as it was also called, interala or indusium, was worn next the skin. Beneath that women wore brassieres, called strophium or mammilare, made of soft leather or linen. The tunica interior was closed all round except for the armholes and neckline, with short sleeves. It was of the same width throughout, and reached to the feet. This was the matrona's house dress, and was at first made of wool; as time went on, however, it was usually of cotton or silk, or even, especially in the late days of the Empire, of transparent "Coan" silk, so-named because the Greek women of the isle of Cos wove the gauzy material out of wild silk.

In the case last mentioned it was long and full, and had a long train, and was worn sometimes with a girdle and sometimes without. Many claim that the stola was adorned at the shoulders with clasps or buttons, but personal experimentation points rather to the formation of tiny cloth "rosettes," which make the garment sleeves closely resemble the sculptural evidence.

Hairstyles

Each morning after the daily bath, an Ornatrix combed, crimped and styled her mistress' hair, using pins, hair-nets and ribbons. Hair dyes are also applied at times; Pliny records a formula for black hair dye that included leeches and vinegar.

Some recipes for hair bleaching and dyeing survive, and include a greasy formula called sapo from Germany to lighten the hair. Others included pepper, rat's heads, even excrement! It is reasonable to assume that repeated use of such noxious formulae necessitated donning a wig for some poor souls.

Hairdressing followed, in general, contemporary Greek styles. From the latter part of the Republican era, however, coiffures became increasingly elaborate and often unbeautiful. It is said that in late Republican and Imperial times Roman women bleached and dyed their hair and, moreover, wore false blonde or red tresses taken from the heads of conquered northern barbarian women.

Characteristics of fashionable Imperial coiffures were: an excessive amount of hair, frequently braided, intricately coiled; frizzed and curled; and high dressing in the front, either with frizzed hair, in the manner that we know as "pompadour," or with decorations of the diadem sort.

Note the diadem arrangement on the portrait bust of Marciana, (CE 95-117). The hair is dressed in tight cylindrical ringlets forming the diadem. A fringe of frizzed hair conceals a narrow band and a "beau-catcher" curl curves in front of the ear. The coiled braids are arranged in a great cap at the crown of the head, and the hair curls naturally and prettily in the nape. This is one of the more attractive styles.

Pretty, too, is a portrait bust of Julia Domna from the third century. Here her thick hair was marcelled and brought back low behind her neck; all the long back-hair is crown-braided and interlaced in a basket-weave and pinned up at the back.

A veil was added at will to any Roman coiffure, often as a ritual accessory. As in Greek practice, this was draped loosely over the head and shoulders, not, as a rule, bound to the head with a ribbon or circlet. Except with the veil and possibly, when traveling, with the petasos or sun-hat, or the cucculus, Roman women did not cover their hair.

Footwear

There were numerous styles, exhibiting all the gradations from a simple sandal to the complete boot reaching up to the calf. Equally numerous were the colours and the materials employed. For certain ranks and classes the kind of footwear was definitely laid down, and not only soldiers, but members of the Senate, consuls, and others had to wear, and were limited to wearing, the footgear prescribed for them.

On the whole the footwear of the women was similar to those of men, but showed less variety. They preferred sandals and shoes that did not come above the ankles to boots reaching higher up the calf. Platform shoes were not uncommon. They naturally paid even more attention than the men to daintiness of appearance, and their shoes were not only trimmed with gold, but embroidered with pearls and similar ornamentation, and imperial decrees even stooped to

Cosmetics

I have told you of the paints that will make you beautiful;

from it too seek means to rescue impaired beauty:

Yet net no lover find the boxes set out on the table;

your looks are aided by dissembled art.

Who would not be offended by paint smeared all over the face,

when by its weight it glides and falls into your warm bosom?

–Ovid

As the matrona began her day, a slave girl removed her mistress' night cream, concocted from wheat flour and asses' milk, or crushed snails. Some facial creams were crafted of more expensive ingredients: Libyan barley, honey and narcissus bulbs, and crushed stag's antlers. Some even contained dangerous poisons, like mercury or lead, not only risking a vain woman's skin, but her life as well.

Nero's lover, then wife, the beautiful and vain Poppaea was famed for developing her own beauty cream fabricated from dough and ass's milk. She kept 500 head of donkeys, which were herded along on her travels so she could bathe in their milk!

The matrona then cleaned her teeth with a toothbrush and dentifrice, then soaked in perfumed bath water, which she also might do after attending the baths to counteract body odour. Scents and fragrances were popular enough to draw the attention of Pliny, who carped that a million sestertii were drained away to the far East in buying scent for Roman ladies.

A masseur, or unctor massaged his mistress' skin with precious unguents, often using a different one for each part of the body. Women who could not afford such expensive scent anointed themselves in olive oil scented with flowers.

After styling her mistress' hair, an ornatrix used white chalk or white lead powder on her and arms, then applied rouge made from red ochre or the dregs of red wine to the lips and cheeks. Eyes were outlined with Egyptian kohl, powdered ash and saffron, and eyebrows and lashes were darkened with burnt cork.

All these ingredients were at hand in pyxides — vases and jars — on a nearby nightstand, which doubtless held a mirror made of polished bronze, copper or silver, or glass backed with lead.

Sources

I CLAVDIA: Women in Ancient Rome
History of Costume, Historic Costume for the Stage by Lucy Barton

I CAESAR, Ruling the Roman Empire, Phil Grabsky, BBC Worldwide Publishing, 1997

The World of Roman Costume, Judith Lynn Sebesta & Larissa Bonfante
Roman Clothing and Fashion, A.T. Croom

VORTIGERN
A BRIEF LOOK INTO THE LIFE OF VORTIGERN
Rome, Diantha Livius

King Vortigern Vorteneu, also known as: Gwrtheyrn in Wales, Wurtigernus in Latin, as well as superbus tyrannus by the Romans, lived from about 370 AD to 459 AD (accounts vary). His origins (and here) are obscure. His name seems to be a title, rather than an actual name. It is thought to translate as "over king" or "over lord". Also, the Celtic "Ver-tigernos" seems to have had the meaning of "high lord" or "great prince" originally.

Vortigern Vorteneu was a tyrant by many accounts. He rose to power via murder and treachery, and in doing so made some powerful enemies. History shows that he proved to be a weak leader with few, if any redeeming qualities. A holy man (St. Germanus or St. Garmon) went so far as to accuse Vortigern of impregnating his own daughter. Although it is said that Vortigern was vilified because of his religious views (Pelagianism). This unsubstantiated slur on his character would support that view.

There are many accounts concerning Vortigern's rise to power and subsequent fall. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Vortigern was able to gain a foothold in power by marrying Magnus Maximus' (Constantine III's predecessor) daughter, Severa ferch Macsen. Constantine died before his three sons: Constans, Aurelius Ambrosius (the Ambrosius Aurelianus of actual history) and Uther Pendragon (the legendary future father of Arthur), were old enough to take the throne. Acting as the advisor to the eldest son, Constans, Vortigern was able to gain some influence. But, this must not have been enough for him, as Geoffrey claims Vortigern conspired to have Constans killed. The two surviving sons, being mere babes the time, were bundled up and taken to the court of their cousin, Budic I, in Brittany.

After gaining power, Vortigern was met by obstacles throughout his reign. His troubles were three-fold: barbarian raids that endangered his borders — the Scots on the West and Picts to the North, a Roman invasion, and the real heir to the throne, Ambrosius. Since Ambrosius was still growing up, early in his reign, Vortigern focused on the other two threats. In order to fight these barbarians, Vortigern turned to the Jutish Princes, Hengist and Horsa. They struck a deal. Geoffrey of Monmouth claims that Vortigern agreed to give them all the land they could cover with a single ox-ride. In return, the brothers promised to give him mercenaries to help defend against the brutal raids occurring on his western and northern borders. This very Roman method of employing one barbarian tribe to defeat another worked. The Saxons were victorious.

In time Vortigern's grip on power started to slip. Severa died and this meant Vortigern's original claim, through his marriage, was shaky....or so many would believe. John H. Ward, however makes an interesting case, stating that Vortigern's authority could not have been solely based on this marriage. During this time in history, one man could not gain so much power over a such a large section of Britain based solely on heredity alone. The most a man could hope to inherit would be rule over a single tribe. But, Vortigern's reach far extended one tribe. Because of this, John H. Ward suggests that Vortigern's power came from the Romans.

There is one account which tells of the Romans coming back to Britain twice, after Maximus' death. In this account ("Vortigern and the End of Roman Britain" by John H. Ward (Britannia, Vol. 3 (1972), pg. 285, 286), Roman aide was given in order to suppress attacks by the Scots and Picts. The Romans were again expelled after giving assistance, but again returned after a letter to Honorius was received. Both of these events happened in Vortigern's time, during his reign. Therefore, it may be possible that Vortigern was more of a Roman vicarius — one who ruled by proxy in place of the Emperor. It is more believable however, if Vortigern would have been named Dux Britannicum (Duke of the Britons), as was Magnus Maximus before him, or even Comes Litoris Saxonici (Count of the Saxon Shore). These titles would fit in very well with the above translations of Vortigern's name.

An example of this greater power would be the circumstances behind his second marriage. It is said Vortigern saw the fair Rowena (Hronwen) while he was drunk after a celebratory feast and fell in love with her. Rowena was Hengist's daughter and Vortigern said he would give the Prince anything in order to have her for his wife. As a bride-price, Hengist asked for Ceint (Kent). Vortigern handed it over to him, deposing the then current ruler, Guoirancgon. As John H. Ward says, "Had Guoirancgon been truly a king of the Cantii, or even a local chieftain, this would have been unthinkable. Yet no effort was made to recover his place, no rebellion on the part of the betrayed civitas is recorded, no question is even raised about Vortigern's right so to treat his Kentish sub-ruler. Guoirancgon merely disappears from the scene." ("Vortigern and the End of Roman Britain" by John H. Ward (Britannia, Vol. 3 (1972), pg. 287).

Vortigern's rule over the region begins to slip more and more throughout his reign. His control had begun to lapse before the Guoirancgon/Hengist affair took place. As noted above, pressure from the Picts and Scots were a constant threat, but Mr. Ward says that the Saxon mercenaries were not placed in the North or West, as Geoffrey of Monmouth states, but on Thanet, right beside Portus Rutupiae. This location was the major port of entry and the most likely target for a Roman attack. The rebellion on Vortigern's part could well explain his fear of a Roman attack, for he had in essence stabbed his benefactor in the back.

By the end of his reign, Vortigern had many factions against him. Ambrosius had grown into a man and was gaining support to overthrow the unpopular "over-king". After Vortigern gave Kent away and married a Saxon, his own son, Vortimer, turned on him and raised arms against him. He called himself a rival British King, but didn't last long. He was wounded in battle, and it is said that his step-mother, the Saxon Rowena poisoned him. As Vortigern had betrayed the Romans, the Saxons betrayed him. They were not happy with their little piece of land and wanted more. According to David Nash Ford's site:

"From their secure power-base, the Saxons then demanded more food and clothing to supply their increased numbers and Vortigern refused them, saying, 'we cannot give you more food and clothing for your numbers are grown.' The Saxons, however, would not accept this answer. Nennius tells us,
'So they took counsel with their elders to break the peace.'
They tore through the land, leaving devastation wherever they went. Many were killed during the ensuing battles, amongst them, Horsa and Vortigern's son, Catigern. Hengist eventually called for a peace conference on Salisbury Plain. The British arrived and were promptly cut down where they stood. This decision on the part of the Saxons would result in several generations of war with the Britons."

With the Romans, Saxons, Ambrosius and others pushing in on him, Vortigern felt the need to flee. He escaped and found refuge with his last friends on the continent. These were the Pelagian Scottish rulers of Demetia. Other, more fantastical accounts, claim that Vortigern flew to the West. He tried one last time to build a fortress to stave off attacks on all sides. This endeavor was met with failure, for so the story goes, every morning, the previous days' work lay in ruin. Vortigern was told to seek out a boy with no father and this led him to Merlin (of Arthurian legend). Merlin gave the High-King this warning:

"Merlin revealed that at night the mountain shook so that all buildings collapsed, because beneath it were buried two fighting dragons. One white representing the Saxons and one red representing the British, and the white one was winning!" (David Nash Ford's Early British Kingdoms).

Vortigern is said to have fled once more, afraid of such an omen. Ambrosius, the tale continues, was constantly on his heels. After being driven further and further south, he took refuge in the old hillfort of Caer-Guorthigirn (Little Doward) above Ganarew. Vortigern meets his end here. This last place of refuge was miraculously struck my lightning, burning Vortigern to death.

Many sources claim that Vortigern was evil, weak, lecherous and a villain. But, perhaps he was a man who did his duty as best he could. He found himself in a situation, not totally of his own making, that he could not control. Try as he may, in the end he failed.

Sources:

Decline of the Roman Empire
"Vortigern and the End of Roman Britain" by John H. Ward (Britannia, Vol. 3 (1972), 277-289)
David Nash Ford's Early British Kingdoms

Carleton Sheets

FEMALE SCRIBES IN ANCIENT EGYPT
WERE FEMALE SCRIBES REALLY A FACT OR DID THE MEN DO IT ALL?
Egypt, Mirjam Nebet

Much has been written about the ancient Egyptian scribe and his status and function in society. We find scribes in many prominent positions up and down the administrative hierarchy, from high dignitaries at the royal court down to those taking records of cargo and harvest. We know that in order to make almost any career, a scribal education was necessary. We also know that to be eligible for a scribal career, you most likely had to be well born. The sons of commoners did not reach the temple schools in general. But what about women in this respect? Was it only men who were able to read and write and did that mean that women were analphabets always and everywhere? Or did there even exist female scribes as well?

The word 'seshet' does not appear until the Middle Kingdom. It is the feminine form of the male 'sesh' which means 'scribe'. The word seshet should consequently denote a female scribe. Some scholars think however that this is instead a short version of a female title which probably means 'painter of her mouth' or 'cosmetician', as it is found listed together with the word for hairdresser.

But there existed a woman in the Middle Kingdom, one Idwy, who was the owner of a scarab seal and who was called

Much has been written about the ancient Egyptian scribe and his status and function in society. We find scribes in many prominent positions up and down the administrative hierarchy, from the royal court down to recorders of cargo and harvest. We know that in order to make a career, a scribal education was mandatory. We also know that to be eligible for a scribal career, you most likely had to be well born. The sons of commoners did not reach the temple schools in general. But what about women in this respect? Was it only men who were able to read and write and did that mean that women were analphabets always and everywhere? Or did there even exist female scribes as well?

The word 'seshet', which doesn't appear until the Middle Kingdom, is the feminine form of the male 'sesh' which means 'scribe'. The word "seshet" should consequently denote a female scribe. Some scholars think however that this is instead a short version of a female title which probably means 'painter of her mouth' or 'cosmetician', as it is found listed together with the word for hairdresser.

But there existed a woman in the Middle Kingdom, Idwy, who was the owner of a scarab seal and who was called seshet. A seal - this points at a much higher status than that of a cosmetician. A seal is used to sign documents with. There are a couple of other examples too: In the Late Period there was a sesh-sehemet; 'female scribe' to the God's wife of Amun at Thebes, and there are two 'seshet' depicted among household officials on a private stelae. There is also one 'seshet' depicted in the burial chamber of the royal woman Aashit at Deir-el-Bahri. These examples show that female scribes cannot be totally excluded. Though only boys were taken to the temple school, girls from literate families could very well have been taught to read and write in a non-official context. Perhaps the knowledge was passed on from mothers to daughters, leaving tutors out of the picture. As women did not work within the bureaucracy, it might not have been considered worthwhile to put them through a formal scribal education and so they had to look for other means.

It might be that there are writings penned by women, but as yet we lack the ability to say for certain. From the workmans' village at Deir el-Medina are ostraca carrying notes which seem to pertain to female doings; laundry lists, dressmaking advice, etc. But even if these notes were indeed written by women it doesn't mean that all women could read and write. The general education level of the inhabitants at Deir el-Medina was higher than the average elsewhere, due to the character of the village with many educated artisans, leaving the farmers aside.

While there are countless depictions of working male scribes, existing depictions of female scribes are on the whole very few. It is not possible to prove that women were employed in the state administration. It could just as well be that they held positions in a royal or private household. There are some New Kingdom depictions of women with a scribal kit under their chairs, but it could be that these tools were put there for lack of space elsewhere in the picture and that they belonged to the husband, since he is also depicted there.

One interesting thing to note is that the goddess Seshat was depicted holding a pen and a palette in her hand. She was referred to as "She who is foremost in the House of Books" and spouse of Djehuty (Gr: Thoth), patron deity of knowledge and of scribes. This points towards that the idea of a woman writing and reading was something acceptable and which occurred, if not on a regular, traditional basis, at least when circumstances allowed for it.

These things considered, it seems likely that women in general were analphabets but that in the upper echelons of society it was not at all unusual to know how to read and write, at least from the Middle Kingdom and onwards. Since we don't hear about them being educated or holding official posts, the main difference between men and women in this context seems to be that women, in the cases where they had acquired the ability to read and write, were probably quite active within the home and in unofficial situations, except perhaps in the case of the God's Wife of Amun, (which was a rather solemn, ritual function) while men, as in most cultures in the ancient world, worked in official positions on all levels in society as administrators or bureaucrats.

THE REPUBLIC NEEDS YOU!
LuciusFlaccus Valerius The Roman Republic needs YOU! Yes, you! We need people for a variety of positions, from Quaestor, Aedile, and Tribune of the Plebs, to Pontifex, Augur, and more! However, the position that we need most of is that of Senator! The Roman Republic needs a Senate, and YOU can help! Just join The Roman Republic, drop a line to either LuciusFlaccus Valerius or Arminius Terentius, and you'll be on your way! OLD MEMBERS WELCOME! If you were a member of the Roman Republic at AncientSites.com, you can be a Praetor within a day of joining! So join the Roman Republic!

OVERHEARD AT THE GREAT HALL......
Eoghain Cumhaill With the approach of Imbolc it can mean only one thing, that Beltainne is just around the corner! The Fianna continue prepare for the spring muster and the return to the forests of Celtia. Join the Fianna today and relive the days of Fionn MacCumhaill and the famous warrior poets of Ireland. New boards have been added discussing Ancient Gaelic Martial Arts as well as The Great Hall where fennidh can discuss activities of the group in real time. As Beltainne approaches great things are in store, so choose to live the life of adventure and become a member of the Fianna today!