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History & Archaeology
COINS AND CROPS
by Aulus Sergius
As it spring is now running into summer, here in Iowa, the thoughts of many turn to this year's crops. After a rainy April and early May, most of the farmers here now have most of their corn (maize to Europeans) and soybeans planted and now look towards the summer months to see how well the crops will do. Iowa is still a largely agricultural state and it is a concern to many, especially my brother-in-law who farms 50 miles north of my home. Even more so was the concern to ancient agriculturally dependent societies, such as Rome.
Following the Punic Wars, fewer and fewer family farms occupied the Italian countryside. This was in part to the loss of men in battle and the increase in the development of farming as an industry, eventually leading to the consolidation of small farms into the latifundia of the late Republic and early Imperial times. Much of this was no longer devoted to the raising of grain, but to more profitable cash crops, such as olive and grapes. While this required a vast cash outlay to get started-it took five years from the planting for vineyards to be productive, ten for olives-once established, they were a steady income and mostly profitable. The thin Italian soil had to lie fallow every couple of years for grain, but grapevines and olives thrived on this soil, year after year. Consequently, the increasing urban populace needed to look elsewhere for grain. Sicily took up the slack at first, but shortages and high prices began to be a problem.
This was first addressed by the reforms of C. Gracchus, (tr. pl. 124-122 BC). His first grain law fixed the price of grain at 6 1/3 asses for a modius (about a peck). By the time of P. Clodius in 58 BC, this had come down to an allotment of free grain to much of the urban poor. After this, Roman officials were bound to the concept, deviating only at their peril. Grain was not imported from not only Sicily, but from what became the primary breadbasket of Rome, Egypt. It was "not for nothing" that Augustus made this an imperial province, directly under his control and that one of the deciding factors in Vespasian's success was his seizure of Egypt on his route to taking over years later.
To this end, it was in the interest of the emperors to give assurances of the continuity of the grain supply, to say nothing of its cost to the populace. At that time, the way to "get the message out" was through the coinage. Just about the earliest example I have found of this is on a denarius issued by the praetor of 42 BC, L. Livineius Regulus. An example of this coin was recently offered on eBay and appears below:
The obverse bears a modius flanked by two grain stalks. This would be a common devise on coins of various denominations in the years to come. Most commonly seen in studies of this is a series of quadrantes issued under Claudius, as seen here:
Similar examples can be found in a denarius of Vespasian, from my personal collection:
Also an as of Hadrian, also in my collection
and a denarius of the same.
The same appears on denarii of later emperors, Commodus and Phillip Arabus:
A slightly different concept is seen on the reverse of an as of Trajan, where the goddess Abuntantia is seen on the prow of a ship, meant to be taken as that of a grain ship and a modius with the ubiquitous stalks of grain waving over the edge:
Another goddess, Ceres, is seen on a dupondius of Claudius.
These are but a few examples of official propaganda meant to reassure the urban proletariat of at least half of their accustomed panem et circenses.
I plan a more detailed treatment at a late. In the meantime, go toss a modern coin in a wishing well for the luck of our crops this year.
IN THE SHADOW OF HIS SON - PHILIP II OF MACEDON
by Drakus Domitius
 And these deeds he accomplished, not by the favour of Fortune, but by his own valour. For King Philip excelled in shrewdness in the art of war, courage, and brilliance of personality. (Diodorus Siculus, 16.1.6. This is most likely a direct quote from Diodorus' source, Ephorus.)
For a very long time, Philip II of Macedon has been overshadowed by the larger-than-life figure of his more famous son, Alexander the Great. This is unfortunate, for Philip is one of the pivotal men in history, without whom the course of events would have been irrevocably altered. Philip's greatness was recognized by almost all in the ancient world. Arrian provides us with perhaps the most impressive summary of Philip's career through a speech given by Alexander to his mutinous men at Opis:
[Philip] brought you down the mountains to the plains, making you a match in battle for the neighbouring barbarians, trusting for your salvation no longer in the natural strength of places so much as your own courage. As to those very barbarians by whom previously you had been constantly plundered and pillaged . . . he made you their leaders and he added most of Thrace to Macedon. He made you the rulers of the Thessalians - you were once scared to death of them - and by humbling the Phocian people he made the way into Greece for you broad and easy instead of narrow and difficult. (Arrian, Anabasis 7.9.2ff.)
Another major contemporary historian, Theopompus was engaged in writing a History of Greece (for which he had spent 40 years collecting material) but decided to cut short his history in an unlikely place so he could instead write the Philippica. In the proem of the work, Theopompus stated that Europe had never produced anyone to match Philip. In his Encomium of Philip, the historian said that if Philip continued to act as he had been, he would become king of the rest of Europe as well.
So why has Philip been so neglected for so long? The answer lies partly in his flamboyant and unbelievably successful son, Alexander the Great. But perhaps more important were the writings of the contemporary Athenian orator Demosthenes. Demosthenes, in opposition to Theopompus and Diodorus, believed that Philip's success was almost entirely due to Greek corruptibility. Philip became the enemy of liberty and democracy. Demosthenes' speeches were studied and imitated at Rome and the Romans generally accepted that Philip had bought the Greeks rather then beating them.
Nevertheless, Philip II deserves mention as one of the greatest kings in history. In addition, he deserves recognition as one of the greatest military minds in history. When Philip acceded to the throne of Macedon, the kingdom was in complete disarray. His brother, the previous king, had been killed in battle against invading Illyrians. The Illyrians had kept Macedon as a tribute paying state. But the Illyrians were not Philip's only problem. Always seeking their own advantage, the Athenians were backing a pretender to the Macedonian throne. The Thracians were backing their own pretender to the throne, one Pausanius. The Macedonian army had lost more than four thousand in the disastrous fight against the Illyrians. Now, the Illyrians were planning a counter attack, the Thracians were invading on behalf of one pretender, and the Athenians were invading in support of a second pretender. A fourth threat, the Paeonians, recognizing Macedonian weakness, was ravaging unchecked.
Philip responded both diplomatically and militarily. He bought off the Thracians and the Paeonians. He then marched against the Athenian pretender, Argaeus, and defeated him and his Athenian allies. Demonstrating the speed which characterized him, Philip turned on the Paeonians and reduced them to a dependant status they never overcame. Then, with two victories under his new army's belt, Philip turned to the problem of the Illyrians.
But before he met the Illyrians in battle (indeed, before he even moved against the Paeonians) Philip had to reorganize the Macedonian army which had been shattered by four decades of defeat, and by the recent annihilation at the hands of the Illyrians. There has been some debate about Philip's role in the reorganization of the army, but the evidence is fairly conclusive that Philip is largely, if not completely, responsible for creating the army his son used so effectively. The centerpiece of his military reforms was the massed infantry Phalanx which used a new weapon, the sarissa. The sarissa was a spear approximately five and a half meters in length. This spear required two hands to wield and this affected the use of a shield, which was either not used at all or was small and strapped into place so as to leave the hands free. The Macedonian Phalanx was drilled deeply in the maneuvers it needed in order act effectively, and it relied on other units within the army to ensure its safety. Philip incorporated the hypaspists into the army, which seem to have been a highly mobile force (either from more extensive drilling or from being more lightly armed) as well as archers, slingers, and other types of troops.
While Philip may well have undertaken some of this organization before he met the Illyrians in battle, much of the drilling and actual construction of his new army would have taken place later, for he lacked the time to hone his army before meeting the Illyrians. Philip used the winter of 359/8 to reorganize the army and give them what training he could. When he received news that the Paeonian king was dead, he seized the initiative and defeated the Paeonians as already mentioned. Philip now turned to the Illyrians.
Mobilizing every able-bodied fighting man in the kingdom, Philip marched against Bardylis, king of the Illyrians with 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. The armies met on the plain near Monastir by Lake Okhrida. There was little difference in the size of the armies involved. The difference lay in the tactics newly learned by the Macedonian army. Using here for the first time the tactics that won victories for Macedonia at Chaeronea, Granicus and Issus - the oblique advance, with center and left echeloned back - Philip defeated the Illyrians, killing 7,000 of the 10,000 man strong Illyrian army. The Illyrian threat was decisively defeated and Bardylis agreed to all of Philip's terms, he had little choice.
Less than a year after Philip acceded to the throne of Macedon in what everyone must have thought impossible circumstances, Philip had emerged as something of a national hero (Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C., 25.). Philip had driven off or killed the other claimants to the throne. He had defeated one pretender in battle, including his Athenian backers. Another pretender's backing was removed through diplomacy. The Paeonian threat had been removed through a quick and total defeat of the bothersome tribe. And the Illyrians, who had previously wrested control of large chunks of Macedonia from Philip's predecessors and had levied a tribute on Macedon, were decisively defeated and forced out of Macedonia entirely. Philip was only twenty-three years old, but had already shown the promise that would lead others to say that Europe had never produced another man like Philip.
SEX IN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA
by ApilIsthar Etana
 Ancient Mesopotamians have long been known for their sexual appetites. Indeed, the exploits of their deities is enough to make one blush. Prostitution was practiced widely, as well as symbolic marriages between priestesses of a temple and the King of a city. But, there was also love between a man and his wife, not just casual, ritual sex. In this article, I will touch upon all these different levels of sexual relationships.
Prostitution in ancient Mesopotamia was not frowned upon as it is now days in the US and other cultures. It was a way for a woman, who in Sumer and Old Babylon had some rights, to make a living. Hammurabi, in his famous codes even had laws concerning these women's rights:
178. If a "devoted woman" or a prostitute to whom her father has given a dowry and a deed therefore, but if in this deed it is not stated that she may bequeath it as she pleases, and has not explicitly stated that she has the right of disposal; if then her father die, then her brothers shall hold her field and garden, and give her corn, oil, and milk according to her portion, and satisfy her. If her brothers do not give her corn, oil, and milk according to her share, then her field and garden shall support her. She shall have the usufruct of field and garden and all that her father gave her so long as she lives, but she can not sell or assign it to others. Her position of inheritance belongs to her brothers.
179. If a "sister of a god," or a prostitute, receive a gift from her father, and a deed in which it has been explicitly stated that she may dispose of it as she pleases, and give her complete disposition thereof: if then her father die, then she may leave her property to whomsoever she pleases. Her brothers can raise no claim thereto.
180. If a father give a present to his daughter--either marriageable or a prostitute (unmarriageable)--and then die, then she is to receive a portion as a child from the paternal estate, and enjoy its usufruct so long as she lives. Her estate belongs to her brothers.
181. If a father devote a temple-maid or temple-virgin to God and give her no present: if then the father die, she shall receive the third of a child's portion from the inheritance of her father's house, and enjoy its usufruct so long as she lives. Her estate belongs to her brothers.
182. If a father devote his daughter as a wife of Mardi of Babylon (as in 181), and give her no present, nor a deed; if then her father die, then shall she receive one-third of her portion as a child of her father's house from her brothers, but Marduk may leave her estate to whomsoever she wishes.
There are myths concerning the relationship of prostitutes and the Ishtar temples. I haven't found any evidence that there were prostitutes in the Ishtar temples, but I have read in Leo Oppenheim's book, "ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA: Portrait of a Dead Civilization", that they were able to live near the Ishtar temple in Uruk. Also, I believe Herodotus said that a young virgin who was about to be married would sit upon the steps of an Ishtar temple and sell herself before she was permitted to marry. I think this is a myth, maybe this was done by the Greek's in Aphrodite's temple, but it is highly unlikely that it occurred in Mesopotamia. According to Oppenheim in Neo-Babylonian times, a bride was supposed to be a virgin, therefore she would not be allowed to sell herself before her marriage.
In these times, there were religious practices where a priestess and or a king or priest would enact marriages between deities. The priestess would play the part of a goddess and the king or priest would become the god. They would go through the marriage ceremony and end up consummating the marriage. An example of such a marriage is that of the goddess Inanna, the Sumerian goddess of love and war (Babylonian Ishtar), and her spouse Damuzi (also known as Tammuz).
Inanna sang: "Last night as I, the queen, was shining bright,
Last night as I, the Queen of Heaven, was shining bright,
As I was shining bright and dancing,
Singing praises at the coming of the night - He met me - he met me!
My lord Dumuzi met me.
He put his hand into my hand.
He pressed his neck close against mine. My high priest is ready for the holy loins.
My lord Dumuzi is ready for the holy loins.
The plants and herbs in his field are ripe.
O Dumuzi! Your fullness is my delight!" She called for it, she called for the bed! She called for the bed that rejoices the heart.
She called for the bed that sweetens the loins. She called for the bed of kingship. She called for the bed of queenship. Inanna called for the bed: "Let the bed that rejoices the heart be prepared!
Let the bed that sweetens the loins be prepared!
Let the bed of kingship be prepared!
Let the bed of queenship be prepared!
Let the royal bed be prepared!"
Inanna spread the bridal sheet across the bed.
She called to the king:
"The bed is ready!"
She called to her bridegroom:
"The bed is waiting!"
(Above excerpt taken from the book, "Inanna" by Diane Wolkenstein and Samuel Noah Kramer, pages 41-42) The book does go into greater detail of what happened between Dumuzi and Inanna in the marriage bed. But, it does get explicit and I don't want to offend. The above is also a good example of a happy marriage. Marriages in ancient times were pre-arranged, but love did grow from them and often there are tales of pre-marital sex happening between a man and his intended.
However, there were also strict laws about sexual relationships between man and wife, man and daughter-in-law and the case of incest. I will again use the Code of Hammurabi as an example of such laws:
128. If a man take a woman to wife, but have no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him.
129. If a man's wife be surprised (in flagrante delicto) with another man, both shall be tied and thrown into the water, but the husband may pardon his wife and the king his slaves.
130. If a man violate the wife (betrothed or child-wife) of another man, who has never known a man, and still lives in her father's house, and sleep with her and be surprised, this man shall be put to death, but the wife is blameless.
154. If a man be guilty of incest with his daughter, he shall be driven from the place (exiled).
155. If a man betroth a girl to his son, and his son have intercourse with her, but he (the father) afterward defile her, and be surprised, then he shall be bound and cast into the water (drowned).
156. If a man betroth a girl to his son, but his son has not known her, and if then he defile her, he shall pay her half a gold mina, and compensate her for all that she brought out of her father's house. She may marry the man of her heart.
157. If any one be guilty of incest with his mother after his father, both shall be burned.
Nor were the mighty gods/goddesses immune to such laws. The Sumerian Supreme god, Enlil, was once banished for raping his wife, Ninlil, before they were married. Not even he was above the law, rape was unacceptable. Ninlil's mother had set her sites on Enlil for a son-in-law and instructed her daughter to lure Enlil to her by bathing nude in a stream. Ninlil agrees and this is what follows:
In the pure stream, the woman bathes, in the pure stream,
Ninlil walks along the bank of the stream Nunbirdu,
The bright-eyed, the lord, the bright-eyed,
The "great mountain," father Enlil, the bright-eyed, saw her,
The shepherd...who decrees the fates, the bright-eyed saw her.
The lord speaks to her of intercourse (?), she is unwilling,
Enlil speaks to her of intercourse (?), she is unwilling;
"My vagina is too little, it knows not to copulate,
My lips are too small, they know not to kiss"...
(Above from Samuel Noah Kramer's "THE SUMERIANS: Their History, Culture, and Character", page 146.)
Enlil doesn't take no for an answer, he tells his vizier, Nusku, that he must have her. Nusku brings Enlil's boat up and Enlil sails with Ninlil on the stream. While sailing he rapes her. For his immoral behavior, even though he is king of the gods, Enlil is banished to the nether world.
Enlil walks about in the Kiur (Ninlil's private shrine),
As Enlil walks about in the Kiur,
The great gods, the fifty of them,
The fate-decreeing gods, the seven of them,
Seize Enlil in the Kiur (saying):
"Enlil, immoral one, get you out of the city,
Nunamnir (an epithet of Enlil), immoral one, get you out of the city."
(Above from Samuel Noah Kramer's "THE SUMERIANS: Their History, Culture, and Character", page 147.)
Ninlil forgives Enlil and follows him into the underworld. Ancient Mesopotamians had sexual freedom. Their prostitutes and concubines had protection from the law. Their gods and goddesses also practiced this freedom, their daily lives were that of a modern soap opera. But, not even the supreme god could escape punishment for his "immoral" behavior.
ADAD, WHAT'S BEHIND A NAME?
THE BABYLONIAN STORM GOD PRESENTED
by Leah Enkidu
Adad, the name of the storm-god in the Babylonian-Assyrian pantheon, who is also known as Ramman ("the thunderer"). The problem involved in this double name has not yet been definitely solved. Evidence seems to favour the view that Ramman was the name current in Babylonia, whereas Adad was more common in Assyria. To judge from analogous instances of a double nomenclature, the two names revert to two different centres for the cult of a storm-god, though it must be confessed that up to the present it has been impossible to determine where these centres were.
A god Hadad who was a prominent deity in ancient Syria is identical with Adad, and in view of this it is plausible to assume---for which there is also other evidence --that the name Adad represents an importation into Assyria from Aramaic districts. Whether the same is the case with Ramman, identical with Rimmon, known to us from the Old Testament as the chief deity of Damascus, is not certain though probable. On the other hand the cult of a specific storm-god in ancient Babylonia is vouched for by the occurrence of the sign Im - the "Sumerian" or ideographic writing for Adad-Ramman - as an element in proper names of the old Babylonian period. However this name may have originally been pronounced, so much is certain - that through Aramaic influences in Babylonia and Assyria he was identified with the storm-god of the western Semites, and a trace of this influence is to be seen in the designation Amurru, also given to this god in the religious literature of Babylonia, which as an early name for Palestine and Syria describes the god as belonging to the Amorite district.
The Babylonian storm-god presents two aspects in the hymns, incantations and votive inscriptions. On the one hand he is the god who, through bringing on the rain in due season, causes the land to become fertile, and, on the other hand, the storms that he sends out bring havoc and destruction. He is pictured on monuments and seal cylinders with the lightning and the thunderbolt, and in the hymns the sombre aspects of the god on the whole predominate.
His association with the sun-god, Shamash, due to the natural combination of the two deities who alternate in the control of nature, leads to imbuing him with some of the traits belonging to a solar deity. In Syria Hadad is hardly to be distinguished from a solar deity. The process of assimilation did not proceed so far in Babylonia and Assyria, but Shamash and Adad became in combination the gods of oracles and of divination in general. Whether the will of the gods is determined through the inspection of the liver of the sacrificial animal, through observing the action of oil bubbles in a basin of water or through the observation of the movements of the heavenly bodies, it is Shamash and Adad who, in the ritual connected with divination, are invariably invoked. Similarly in the annals and votive inscriptions of the kings, when oracles are referred to, Shamash and Adad are always named as the gods addressed, and their ordinary designation in such instances is bele biri, "lords of divination." The consort of Adad-Ramman is Shala, while as Amurru his consort is called Aschratum.
THE ORIGIN AND MIGRATION OF THE "GYPSY RACE"
by Anya Gepid
 The origins of the people we call Gypsies has been a matter of speculation for a long time. For many centuries, people have thought the gypsies, or Roma as they would rather be called, came from Egypt. In fact, the word "Gypsy" stems from the word "Egyptian", a name given them during the Tudor period. But some believe the name stems, not necessarily from the English, but the Germans. In 1417, according to this theory, a group of Gypsy Travelers arrived in Germany. They told the Emperor that they came from the Balkans. The Germans called this area, at the time, "Little Egypt". The Emperor gave them a letter of protection which allowed the Gypsies free passage. When they crossed into the British Isles, the people there began to call them Egyptians, then shortened it to Gypsies.
In these modern times however, thanks to linguistics, we know that the Gypsies of old did not originate in Egypt. Studies on the Roma - the word comes from Rom which means "man" - language have shown that they came from India, rather than Egypt. Their language, called Romani, shares so many common features with Sanscrit and other Indo-Aryan languages, that there is no doubt as to its origins.
It is now believed that these people left Northwest India around 1000 AD. In the Punjab Region, during the 11th and 12th centuries, wars erupted. The region was being invaded by Afghanistan and this led to many years of turmoil. In the end, the Afghans won a major battle. This split the Roma into three different groups, according to Dr. Jan Kochanowski, a Gypsy scholar who is himself a Gypsy. Two of these stayed in the Punjab region, scattered about and no longer whole. The third group set off across Afghanistan and toward Europe. They called themselves Romane Chave, which translates to "the sons of Roma". Due to their cunning, the crossing through the country of their enemy was not as fatal as it could have been. There were two warring factions at the time: the Shiites and the Sunnites. To insure their safety, the Romane Chave told the Shiites that they were being pursued by the Sunnites, when in Shiite territory. When elbow to elbow with the Sunnites, they told them the opposite. This cunning allowed them to cross a hostile region with little harm.
From Afghanistan, the Roma crossed into Turkey where many still live today. Some loanwords in Romani show that they also went through Persia, Armenia, and Greece. I have not seen any evidence that they ever set foot in Egypt, but that's not to say they never went there. From Greece, it seems others traveled into Western Europe. As stated above, there is evidence of them being in Germany and then England in the 1400's and 1500's. Today Gypsies can be found in Eastern and Western Europe as well as in the United States. Their numbers are roughly estimated to be in the neighborhood of 5-6 million.
AIFA'S ARCHAEOLOGY NOTES
by Aifa Niafer
Bulgaria - The oldest multiple page book, written in the lost Etruscan language, has gone on display in Bulgaria’s National Museum in Sofia. The two and a half millennia old manuscript was discovered 60 years ago in a tomb in southwestern Bulgaria. It was donated to the museum by its finder. The authenticity of the book has been confirmed by two experts in Sofia and London. The six bound sheets of 24 carat gold are believed to be the oldest comprehensive work involving multiple pages. Although there are around 30 similar known pages, none of them are linked together in book form.
Bulgaria - Bulgarian archaeologist believe they may have found a Thracian temple of Dionysus at the site of the ancient village of Perperikion. The village was situated in the Rhodope mountain chain in southern Bulgaria. This sanctuary was an important as the one to Apollo at Delphi. It was from the Temple of Dionysus at Perperikion that Alexander the Great departed on his world conquest. Inside one building was an oval hall with no roof and a round altar. This matches Roman historian Suetonius’ description of the oracle.
Bulgaria - An excavation at the southeastern Bulgarian site of Halka Bunar have begun to shed light on mysterious rituals performed at an ancient Thracian Sanctuary. The most prolific find at the site, namely cups, suggests the mysterious rituals included wine orgies. The sanctuary, which dates back to the 3rd and 4th centuries, was probably dedicated to the Odrysians. The site is about 60 km north of the ancient Odryhsian capital Seuthoplous.
England - Six more graves were found about half a mile from the Boscombe Down, Amesbury, Wiltshire grave of the Archer dubbed “The King of Stonehenge”. The remains of four adults and two children were found along with four Beaker style pots, some flint tools, one flint arrowhead, and a bone toggle for fastening clothing. The grave is about three miles from Stonehenge and was nearly damaged by a trench being dug for cables and pipes. The bones are about 4,500 years old which is the same age as the Archer but testing will be done to determine if these people were present around 2300 BC. If so then they may have lived during the building of Stonehenge. The discovery of the new grave was found almost exactly a year after the Archer’s. His grave was the richest found in Britain at the time. The new find is unusual as it’s so rare to find the remains of so many people in one grave in southern England. Mass graves were typical of the Stone Age but rare for the Bronze Age.
Ireland - After the most recent discovery of the Croghan Hill bog man near Daingean, it’s been decided to conduct further exploration of the area. A 75 acre site in County Offaly has been identified as possibly containing other human remains or some evidence of settlements. A full scale excavation will be conducted in the summer once the bog has sufficiently dried out. The body of the Croghan Hill man was discovered by a farmer who was clearing drains. Inspection of his clothing and a bracelet suggest he lived up to 2000 years ago but no carbon dating tests have been done yet. The body was found without a head but even incomplete it’s one of the most well preserved bog bodies found.
Peru - The Cusichaca Trust has restored an ancient water system developed by the Wira and refined by the Inca. The purpose is to restore the system of canals and terraces already in place and to allow local farmers to irrigate their land. The area’s economy was shattered by the activities of the Shining Path guerilla movement which h as forced families to flee. It’s thought that by using the Incas’ system some of what’s been lost can be reclaimed. The restoration has already had an impact on the area’s agriculture. Farmers who used to produce 3 crops in 10 years can now produce up to 2 crops a year. Unfortunately due to lace of funding further work by the Cusichaca Trust has been curtailed.
Nicaragua - At the site of El Cascal de Flor de Piño, near the town of Kukra Hill, archaeologist have discovered a previously unknown ancient civilization. Evidence has been found of a town and several outlying villages which developed around 2700 years ago and lasted for more than 1000 years. This newly discovered civilization is very similar to the societies that preceded the Mayan civilization. Monuments, petroglyphs, pottery, and huge columns formed out of rock all date from before the Mayan Era. The pottery is similar to some previously found in Belize and the columns resemble some found in Mexican sites known to be used for rituals. Excavations, which have been spread over the past six years, are still on going.
Mexico - A rare 16th century codex from Cuauhtinchan, declared a national treasure in 1963, was finally removed from a safety deposit box. The owner had refused to sell the manuscript until recently. Printed on indigenous paper the codex tells the history of a community through pictorial representations. This particular codex came from a group of documents from the same town and is the most heavily illustrated of the group. It’s the aim of scholars to return the codex back to Cuauhtinchan. A privately founded project is underway to study, restore, and publish findings about the codex.
Egypt - UNESCO has given a $600,000 grant for the emergency restoration of KV22 which lies to the west of the main area of the Valley of the Kings. It’ll be the first time the tomb of Amenhotep III will be opened to the public since it was discovered during the years of the French Expedition in the late 1790s.
England - A ceramics specialist at the Museum of London approached the head of the Northamptonshire Police Fingerprint Bureau for help after discovering prints on some Roman pottery. It was hoped that criminal finger printing techniques could be used to track the work of the 1st century potter. Nine pieces of pottery were studied but it couldn’t be determined how many people were involved in making the items. The details for the marks were poor. The best that could be found was that on two pieces of potter the prints looked similar.
England - One of the largest excavations to ever hit the city of Chester is slated to begin next year. A three year plan has been prepared for work to uncover what lies beneath a large site centered on Northgate Street which is slated for redevelopment. It’s hoped it will give us a bigger picture of Roman Chester. The north western quarter of a Roman fortress founded in 70 AD once occupied the site. Over 20 test trenches have been dug to identify areas of archaeological interest.
Italy - Frescos from the once buried towns of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabine have recently been found to exhibit a primitive form of virtual reality. University of Warwick researchers and the school’s “e-lab” have found that these extravagant frescos are filled with tricks of perspective used to impress guests. The technique, called skenograpia, was first used in 5th century Greek theater. It creates the illusion of depth using vanishing point perspective to suggest 3-D architectural structures on two-dimensional surfaces. The University is now using these techniques to transform the ancient frescos back into virtual reality representations. These reconstructions have the potential of making the long lost Roman theaters come alive for modern viewers.
Greece - Research has found that a building in the Asclepium of Epidaurus was not the Stoa of Kotyos as previously believed but the temple of the Egyptian deities Osiris, Isis and Arpocrate. Located northeast of the Propylon of the Gymnasium, the 2nd century AD, building was the temple of Ascelepius, Apollo and Hygeia worshiped in their Egyptian forms. In the eastern Peloponnese at that time there was a strong element of co-worshiping Egyptian and Greek deities which began during the Hellenistic period. There is a proposal to conserve the walls and restore the columns of the temple using 85% authentic material and 15% new limestone similar to the original.
USA - Work is progressing on a four year study as part of the preparation for the Animas-La Plata water storage project. The focus is on the 100 settlements of the ancestral Puebloans who lived around Ridges Basin and Blue Mesa from 750 to 850 AD. The area also contains part of trails used by the early Spanish explorers and Utes traveling between Ignacio and Towaoc. It appears that the Basket Makers were present as early as 500 AD. and the Utes after 1300. Only two more summers are left on the project before a lake is created covering the site.
Canada - Petroglyphs created by the Mi’Kmaq people and found on the hills behind Bedford are now being tangled in the red tape haggling of the provincial and municipal governments. The carvings, which are about 500 years old, are near an area that is the subject of land development and the province of Nova Scotia is trying to protect the rock carvings. Archaeologists are hoping the site will be recognized as a historical site and are encouraging the Mi’Kmaq to take more of an interest in saving the petroglyphs but their attention is divided by the huge archaeological dig uncovering a 12,600 year old village in Debert, Cumberland County and obtaining more treaty rights. Negotiations are underway with the landowner and the4 Natural Resources Department. The exact location of the petroglyphs hasn’t been made known to the general public.
Spain - Eight years after a cave near Dosrius was excavated in 1995 archaeologist have announced that they’d discovered the remains of about 160 individuals killed in a battle that took place over 4000 years ago. Most of the bones belonged to both males and females ranging in age from 12 to 20 years old. The entrance of the cave had been covered by dolmans creating a tomb for more than 25,000 human bones. Also recovered from the site were 70 flint arrow heads. This discovery is the first of its kind for Spain.
England - The Anglo-Saxon burial grounds site on the grounds of Hawks Hill House in Guildford Road, Surrey is in danger of being lost forever. Millgate Homes wants to build an eight flat development and create a new road on the site claiming that an independent archaeological study found nothing of note. The Fetcham Residents’ Association claims the site is considered prime by the Surrey Archaeological Society and that skeletons of people interred during the Saxon period were found when Hawks Hill House was built in 1886. It’s predicted that more such finds are possible in the area.
Egypt - A German Institute for Oriental Studies excavation team have discovered two pots dating to the 3rd millennium B.C. They were found in the tomb of the 1st Dynasty Tomb of the Pharaoh Den. The dig site is in the el-Ekab region in the town of Abydos, Sohag. Also found were bronze statues, colored stones and gold chips. Abydos was the center of the cult of Osiris.
Pakistan - An archaeological site has been discovered at Vohawain Dera Ghazi Khan. It is believed that the site is Bugiwala in Basti Kutani which is about 4 km away from the ruins of Dhera in Mauza Degarwali. The ruins at Dhera date to around 5000 BC. and are already on the list of Federal Archaeological Department. Pottery found in Bugiwala is similar to pottery found in Hakarra archaeological sites which date from 2800 to 3500 BC. but the inner texture and working of the pottery is different. Pottery of the Quetta wet-ware and Kot Diji period were also present. At this time its unknown if Bugiwala and Dhera are indeed separate sites.
Canada - During digging near the Huron Village tourist attraction in Midland, Ontario for a landscaping project, an Indian burial ground believed to contain hundreds of skeletal remains was discovered. After the previously unknown grave site was discovered police, the local coroner, archaeologists and First Nations elders were called to the site which dates from about 1400 AD. It is believed the burial pit, located just 75 feet from the office of the site archaeologist, contains the remains of an entire village of the Huron people. A ceremony for the deceased was conducted by an elder from the Chippewas of Beausoleil First Nation. It is believed that less than a quarter of the bodies were disturbed. It’s likely the town will declare the site a protected cemetery and erect a plaque denoting the area’s significance.
The Netherlands - A Roman barge, first discovered in 1997, is currently being excavated from the bottom of Heldammer Stroom which is an offshoot of the old course of the Rhine near Utrecht. The beautifully preserved ship has stayed waterlogged for over 2000 years even though the originally riverbed silted up hundreds of years ago. The barge is the first to be found with a cabin containing an entire inventory of preserved items including the captain’s kitchen, bed, chest and cupboard complete with contents. The barge is planned to be lifted this month and transported to the National Institute of Maritime Archaeology in Leylstad. It’ll be immersed in a tank containing a preservative solution for a period of two years.
China - Near the new Xi’an Banpo Site Museum a pit believed to have been used for ancient ritual sacrifice has been unearthed. Banpo is the largest and best preserved primitive village in China and is 5,000 years old. A 70 centimeters high columnar stone was found standing in the center of the pit with two smaller pits and more stone columns or Jisizhu also found. The pit was found while digging for the planned new eastern wall.
Spain - A chest containing the supposed remains of Christopher Columbus were exhumed in order to determine if the remains are really those of the explorer. It’s hoped the tests will end the debate of if the bones are in Seville or in a monument to the explorer in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. A box containing what’s thought to be the bones of Columbus’ brother Diego was also exhumed along with the remains of Columbus’ son Hernando. All three were transported to the University of Grenada where the tests will be conducted. Two descendants of Columbus were present at the exhumations and will be providing samples for the DNA analysis. The researcher who began the process to get the remains exhumed thinks that Columbus is buried in Santo Domingo and hopes these tests will bring a definitive answer. Columbus was originally buried in Valladolid, Spain in 1506 despite his request to be buried in the Americas. After three years his remains were moved to a monastery on La Caruja then in 1537 Diego’s widow sent the remains of Diego and his father to the cathedral in Santo Domingo where they stayed until 1795 when the island was ceded to France and the remains returned to Spain via Havana. In 1977 a box containing bones and the inscription “Illustrious and distinguished male, don Cristobal Colon” were discovered while digging at the Santa Domingo cathedral.
Egypt - British archaeologist are confident that a tattered mummy found in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings is Queen Nefertiti. The conclusion was based on 12 years of research after authorities allowed the 3500 year old body to be examined in detail. Although archaeologists aren’t 100% certain of the identity but they are positive it’s a late 18th dynasty powerful royal woman. The mummy was originally found in 1898, by a French team, in a side chamber of King Amenhotep’s tomb. Although in poor shape the mummy bears a resemblance to the Nefertiti bust displayed in Berlin. In a related story the aforementioned bust has been placed on a bronze statue of a naked woman. This move has infuriated Egyptian archaeologists.
England - What is believed to be the oldest writing in English has been found in an Anglo-Saxon burial ground located at West Heslerton, near Malton, North York. It’s in the form of the four runes representing the letters N, E. I and M scratched on the back of a bronze brooch from around 650 AD. The brooch is among 1 million artifacts recovered from the site. The adjacent Anglo-Saxon settlement is the first of its kind in Britain to be excavated forensically using modern techniques.
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On This Page
COINS AND CROPS
by Aulus Sergius
IN THE SHADOW OF HIS SON - PHILIP II OF MACEDON
by Drakus Domitius
SEX IN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA
by ApilIsthar Etana
ADAD, WHAT'S BEHIND A NAME?
by Leah Enkidu
THE ORIGIN AND MIGRATION OF THE "GYPSY RACE"
by Anya Gepid
AIFA'S ARCHAEOLOGY NOTES
by Aifa Niafer
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 The Campus Martius group in Rome is being re-started under new management! The Campus Martius, which many remember from earlier days, is a military roleplaying group this time situated in the year 159 BC.
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 For those of you who do not know, Arturus Rex is under new leadership. Prosperina Curius has taken over the reings and has many ideas as to how to restart the group. If you love the historical Arthur, this is the group for you!
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 Visit the Temple of Cornellia and leave offerings of chocolate for the goddess of polite behavior and good manners. The Temple for the worship of the goddess Cornellia and her chainsaw. A place to make offerings to the great goddess and to hear her words and posts of wisdom.
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